Transport and fleet management

1Organising transport

• Choose the mode (road, air, river) according to urgency, cost, access and security; consult the Logistics Cluster on road conditions and common services (for example UNHAS for air transport).
• For a private transporter: contract, insurance, liability in case of loss.
• Each load leaves with a waybill in several copies, signed on departure and on arrival; discrepancies are recorded.
• For imports: know the customs and tax exemption rules; Incoterms specify who pays and who bears the risk at each stage.

2Fleet management

• A logbook for each vehicle: date, driver, route, mileage, purpose of the trip.
• Fuel monitoring: litres consumed and consumption per 100 km; an abnormal variance may indicate a leak, a fault or theft.
• Preventive maintenance according to mileage, daily check by the driver (tyres, oil, brakes, lights, first aid kit).
• Rental or purchase: compare the total cost; project vehicles often belong to the donor until they are transferred.

3Road safety

Road accidents are one of the leading causes of death and injury among humanitarian workers. Basic rules:

• Seat belts for everyone, in the front and the back; the organisation's speed limits.
• No phone while driving, no alcohol, drivers' rest periods respected.
• No unauthorised passengers; vehicles marked in accordance with the security policy.
• Movements authorised and tracked by radio or phone; no night driving except in exceptional cases.

4Planning transport: modes, capacities and costs

Organising transport does not mean finding an available truck, but building a plan that connects the points of entry of goods (port, airport, supplier, central warehouse) to the final delivery points, taking into account volumes, deadlines, access and security constraints, and cost. The transport plan is updated every week in a meeting with programme teams.

The starting information

• The need: quantities by destination and by date, taken from the distribution plan or the procurement plan.
• The network: condition of roads and bridges, load limits, seasons, checkpoints, actual travel times. The Logistics Capacity Assessments published by the Logistics Cluster, access maps and incident reports from organisations present in the area are the best sources.
• Security constraints: authorised routes, travel hours, convoy or escort requirements, humanitarian notification procedures to the parties to the conflict (deconfliction mechanisms generally managed by OCHA).
• Resources: own fleet, commercial transporters under contract, cluster common services, humanitarian air services.

Comparing transport modes

To compare options, the cost per tonne delivered (or per tonne-kilometre) is calculated, including loading, offloading, foreseeable losses, any escort and waiting time. A truck does not always fill up by weight: for bulky items, volume is the limiting factor (a 10 t truck with a 40 m³ cargo box will only carry about 6 to 7 t of blankets and jerrycans). The calculation must be based on the load that is actually possible.

Contracting a transporter

1. Competitive tendering according to thresholds, often through a transport framework agreement with rates per tonne and per route, adjustable according to the price of fuel.
2. Vetting of the transporter: legal registration, condition of vehicles (inspection), goods-in-transit insurance, references, sanctions screening.
3. Contract specifying responsibilities: the transporter is liable for losses and damage between the signature of the waybill at loading and its signature at delivery; amount of compensation (value of the goods, often capped), deadlines, penalties, prohibition on subcontracting without consent, prohibition on carrying passengers or weapons, compliance with codes of conduct.
4. For each load: transport order, waybill in several copies (consignor, transporter, consignee, return to consignor), inspection of loading by the logistician, and tracking during the journey.
5. Payment on presentation of the waybill signed by the consignee, after deduction of losses attributable to the transporter.

The waybill is a document of value: it is the proof that the goods were handed over to the transporter and received. A waybill not returned signed is an unproven delivery. Tracking waybills awaiting return is part of the weekly dashboard.

International transport and customs

For imports, the Incoterms (2020 version, International Chamber of Commerce) define the point at which costs and risks are transferred. With EXW, the buyer bears everything from the seller's factory; with FCA, the seller hands the goods, cleared for export, to the carrier nominated by the buyer; with CIP, the seller pays for carriage and insurance to the agreed destination, but the risk passes to the buyer once the goods are handed to the first carrier; with DAP, the seller bears costs and risks up to the place of destination, with the buyer handling import; with DDP, the seller also handles customs clearance and import duties. FOB, CFR and CIF are reserved for sea and inland waterway transport. The choice must take into account the organisation's actual capacity to handle customs clearance in the country.

Humanitarian organisations often benefit from exemptions from duties and taxes under a host country agreement or an agreement with the government, but obtaining exemptions can take weeks. Packing lists, pro forma invoices, certificates of origin, donation certificates, import permits (medicines, telecommunications equipment) and transport documents (bill of lading, air waybill) must be prepared in advance. The Revised Kyoto Convention, in particular its annex on relief consignments, and the model customs facilitation agreements promoted by OCHA and the World Customs Organization provide the framework for advocacy with the authorities.

5Full example: the transport plan for the response in northern Vashta

Fictitious context: following floods, the NGO "Réseau d'Entraide Mavuso" has three weeks to move 186 tonnes of aid (food and kits) from its central warehouse in Port-Siran to three distribution areas in northern Vashta. The main road is paved as far as Belkam; beyond that, a laterite track accessible to trucks of up to 10 t links Belkam to Tessa; the Rimo area can only be reached by a waterlogged track passable only by 4x4 and by a navigable river.

1. The need

2. The options and the choice

The logistician considers three options for Rimo: humanitarian aircraft (Rimo's dirt airstrip is open but saturated, approximately 2,000 USD per tonne, i.e. 60,000 USD), 4x4s from the fleet (1 t per vehicle, 4-day round trip, 30 rotations required: unrealistic) and barge from Belkam (hire of a 40 t barge for two round trips, 6,500 USD, plus handling). The barge is chosen, with the aircraft remaining the fallback option for urgent health products. For Belkam and Tessa, competitive tendering under the transport framework agreement gives:

Comment: the rotation calculation for Belkam shows that, by weight, 5 semi-trailers would barely suffice (126 / 25 = 5.04); the logistician plans 6, as he cannot spread 1 t over the other trucks without exceeding the volume limit. The 30 t destined for Rimo transit through Belkam: they are stored in the partner's warehouse in Belkam, which adds a documented transfer of custody. Total transport cost: 21,500 USD, plus handling and temporary storage in Belkam (approximately 2,100 USD), i.e. an average of approximately 127 USD per tonne delivered. By comparison, an all-air solution for Tessa and Rimo would have cost more than 180,000 USD.

3. The schedule

4. Risks and mitigation measures

• Closure of the Tessa track after heavy rain: daily monitoring with the Tessa village chief and the cluster, plan B using 5 t trucks at a pre-negotiated rate.
• Transhipment at the Rimo landing stage (manual offloading): team of 20 registered daily workers, protective tarpaulins, checks by the partner's storekeeper and a team member.
• Theft or illegal taxation at checkpoints: sealed loads, visible waybills, contractual prohibition on paying, immediate reporting of any incident to the security focal point.
• Safety of the barge crew: life jackets mandatory, no overloading, no navigation at night.

5. The result and the report

183.6 tonnes are delivered in good condition; 1.2 t of flour is damaged while offloading the barge (bags fell into the water), and 1.2 t is held up on the last truck, blocked in Tessa by rain, and delivered on day 12. The transport report shows, for each route: planned tonnage, tonnage delivered, lead time, cost per tonne, incidents and losses, and the share of losses charged to the transporter under its contract. Lessons learned (provide a mobile crane or ramps at the landing stage, prepare a river transport framework agreement before the season) are shared with the Logistics Cluster.

6Managing a fleet: indicators, costs and decisions

A vehicle fleet is often one of the largest support cost items of a mission, and the main source of risk to staff lives. Managing it means having reliable data for each vehicle every month and making decisions: maintenance, replacement, reallocation, rental or purchase.

Data to be collected

• Logbook completed for each trip: date, departure and arrival times, driver, starting and ending mileage, route, purpose, authorised passengers, signature of the person who requested the movement.
• Fuel log: date, odometer reading, litres, price, filling station or release note from the fuel tank, signature. The odometer reading at the time of refuelling is essential for calculating consumption.
• Maintenance record per vehicle: work carried out, parts replaced, costs, mileage, next service due.
• Daily check by the driver using a checklist (tyres and spare wheel, fluid levels, brakes, lights, windscreen wipers, seat belts, first aid kit, fire extinguisher, communication equipment, vehicle documents).
• Incident and accident register, including incidents without injuries.

The monthly dashboard

Example analysis: the Moro base fleet

The fictitious Moro base has four identical 4x4s. Data for the month:

Analysis: V3 consumes 40% more than the average of the others on comparable journeys. The logistician checks the consistency between the mileage in the logbook and the mileage recorded at refuelling, the declared route (known distances), the mechanical condition (injectors, air filter, tyre pressure, leaks) and organises a consumption test on a reference route with another driver. He does not conclude that there has been theft before carrying out these checks. V4 has accumulated 12 days off the road and major repairs: with more than 280,000 km and 9 years of service, its cost per kilometre this month exceeds 2 USD, compared with less than 0.5 USD for the others. A replacement proposal is prepared, checking the title and disposition rules of the donor that funded it.

Buy, rent or share

The decision is based on the total cost of ownership compared with the cost of rental over the planned period of use. Purchase is generally worthwhile for a long-term presence, on terrain requiring equipped vehicles (radios, protection, standardisation), and when the donor authorises the purchase. Rental with driver is suitable for short-term or variable needs, but requires rigorous checking of vehicle condition and driver competence, as drivers must apply the same safety rules. Shared fleet services or long-term leasing schemes exist within the United Nations system and certain NGO networks. Many organisations set a replacement threshold of around 5 years or 150,000 to 200,000 km on difficult terrain, to be adjusted according to actual cost data.

A vehicle purchased with donor funds remains subject to that donor's rules until its final disposition: recording in the asset register, insurance, use limited to the project or as authorised, and a written decision on its transfer, sale or donation at the end of the project.

Managing fuel

• Pre-numbered fuel vouchers or fuel cards assigned to each vehicle, rather than cash.
• Tank or drums in stock: stock card, checked dipstick readings, meter on the pump, weekly stock count, secure and ventilated storage, safety distance.
• Monthly reconciliation between fuel purchased, fuel dispensed and the consumption calculated per vehicle and per generator.
• Strategic fuel reserve sized according to the contingency plan (for example for 2 to 4 weeks of essential activities and a relocation).

7Road safety as a risk management programme

Road traffic accidents are among the leading causes of death and serious injury among humanitarian workers, ahead of many forms of violence. They also affect communities: a humanitarian vehicle that knocks down a child in a village undermines the organisation's acceptance. Road safety is not just about posted rules; it is a programme with responsibilities, data and controls.

Components of a road safety policy

1. Driver recruitment and assessment: valid licence of the right category, practical test on the type of vehicle and terrain, reference checks, test of knowledge of the highway code and internal rules.
2. Training: defensive driving, off-road and difficult-terrain driving, first aid, use of communication equipment, conduct at checkpoints and in the event of an accident; regular refresher training.
3. Driving rules: seat belts for everyone, maximum speeds set by the organisation (often below legal limits, for example 80 km/h on roads, 40 km/h on tracks and 20 to 30 km/h in villages and camps), ban on phone use, alcohol and drugs, maximum number of passengers and ban on carrying unauthorised passengers and weapons.
4. Fatigue management: maximum driving time per day (often around 8 to 9 hours), regular breaks (for example 15 minutes every two hours), minimum rest between two working days, second driver for long journeys.
5. Suitable, well-maintained vehicles: standard equipment (first aid kit, fire extinguisher, warning triangle, spare wheel, tools, communication equipment), preventive maintenance based on mileage, daily check.
6. Movement management: movement request and authorisation, radio or GPS tracking, check-in points at agreed intervals, procedure in the event of missed check-in, curfew and ban on night driving unless an exception is authorised.
7. Incident reporting and analysis: every accident or near miss is reported, analysed without scapegoating, and leads to action.
8. Monitoring: telematics where available (speed, harsh braking, hours), monthly reviews, discussions with the drivers concerned, recognition of good behaviour.

Accident procedure

1. Secure the area and the people involved, provide first aid within the limits of one's training.
2. Alert the base and the security focal point; assess the risk of crowd hostility before remaining at the scene, in line with the security plan.
3. Organise the medical evacuation of the injured, including third parties.
4. Inform the authorities as required by law and the organisation's policy; never negotiate or pay compensation on the spot without instructions.
5. Document: photos, sketches, witnesses, accident report form, incident report within 24 hours.
6. Follow up on insurance, care for victims, psychological support for the driver and passengers, and root cause analysis.

Responsibility for road safety does not lie with drivers alone. The most senior passenger who asks the driver to speed up to arrive on time, or who does not wear a seat belt, creates the risk. Effective policies give the driver explicit authority to refuse to set off if the rules are not respected.

8Adapting transport and fleet management to the context

Sudden-onset emergency

Transport capacity is saturated, prices rise and roads may be cut. The usual responses: activate framework agreements and pre-negotiated rental contracts, use the common services of the Logistics Cluster (common road transport, storage, air services), use military assets only as a last resort and in line with the Oslo Guidelines and country-specific guidance on civil-military coordination, and share access information (roads, bridges, airports) in cluster meetings and bulletins. Planning is short-term, with daily revisions.

Protracted crisis

The aim is efficiency: annual framework agreements, cost analysis by route, consolidation of loads across projects and organisations, planned maintenance, reasoned fleet renewal, use of local transporters that support the economy. Seasons must be anticipated: prepositioning before the rainy season, river transport contracts prepared during the dry season.

Insecurity and negotiated access

• Choice between visibility (logos, flags) and a low profile (unmarked vehicles) depending on the security analysis and the level of acceptance.
• Movements notified to the parties through humanitarian notification mechanisms, without requesting authorisation, which would amount to recognising control or accepting conditions incompatible with the principles.
• Refusal of armed escorts except in exceptional circumstances consistent with the IASC Non-Binding Guidelines on the Use of Armed Escorts for Humanitarian Convoys.
• Clear policy of non-payment at illegal checkpoints, with an escalation procedure and collective analysis in access forums.
• Use of commercial transporters when the presence of the organisation's vehicles increases risk, while assessing the risk transferred to the transporter.

Urban settings

Distances are short but travel times are long; night-time deliveries may be imposed by regulations; the risk of accidents involving pedestrians is high. Rental with driver and direct delivery by suppliers are often more efficient than an organisation's own fleet.

Remote management and local partners

When transport is provided by a partner, the organisation checks that transport contracts, waybills and road safety rules exist and are applied, funds the actual costs (maintenance, insurance, driver training) and does not transfer risk without resources. Proof of delivery (signed waybills, time-stamped photos, verification calls to recipients) and third-party monitoring compensate for the absence of visits.

9Common mistakes, the auditor's perspective and interview questions

Field mistakes and how to avoid them

What auditors and donors look at

• Competitive tendering of transport and rental contracts, and their amendments.
• Consistency between logbooks, fuel logs and invoices, and the coherence of consumption figures.
• Use of vehicles for authorised activities only and allocation of shared costs between projects according to a documented allocation key (often mileage per project).
• The asset register, insurance and disposition decisions for vehicles.
• Signed waybills for each delivery and the handling of losses in transit.

Interview questions

1. "You need to deliver 120 tonnes to an area where the road is cut. How do you build your plan?"

A good answer starts with access information (cluster, capacity assessments, partners), compares modes by cost per tonne, lead time and risk, proposes a combination (road to the nearest point, then river or air for the urgent portion), takes weight and volume into account, integrates security and notifications, and plans for documents, receipt and a plan B.

2. "One vehicle consumes 40% more than the others. How do you proceed?"

The candidate describes the checks in order: data (logbook, mileage at refuelling, receipts), route, mechanical condition, controlled consumption test, discussion with the driver and then, if fraud is likely, reporting in line with policy, without premature accusation.

3. "Explain the difference between FCA, CIP and DAP for a purchase of imported medicines."

A good answer explains where risk and costs pass, recalls the importance of insurance and the cold chain, and indicates that the choice depends on the organisation's capacity to manage international transport and customs clearance, and on the exemptions available.

4. "A project manager asks the driver to leave at 6 p.m. to get back before the next day. What do you do?"

A good answer recalls the no-night-driving rule and the driver's authority, looks for a solution (departure at dawn the next day, overnight accommodation on site), and escalates the incident if the pressure persists, explaining that it is precisely these exceptions that lead to serious accidents.

5. "Should you buy or rent vehicles for an 18-month project?"

A good answer compares the total cost of ownership with rental over the period, takes into account donor rules (approvals, origin, disposition), terrain, security, local availability and import lead times, and concludes with a reasoned recommendation rather than a general rule.

Key references

• Logistics Operational Guide and Logistics Capacity Assessments: Global Logistics Cluster.
• Incoterms 2020: International Chamber of Commerce.
• Revised Kyoto Convention (annex on relief consignments): World Customs Organization; Model Customs Facilitation Agreement: OCHA.
• Guidelines on the Use of Foreign Military and Civil Defence Assets in Disaster Relief (Oslo Guidelines): OCHA.
• IASC Non-Binding Guidelines on the Use of Armed Escorts for Humanitarian Convoys.
• Fleet safety tools and guides from Fleet Forum.
• Global Plan for the Decade of Action for Road Safety: World Health Organization.
• Dangerous Goods Regulations of the International Air Transport Association (IATA) for air freight.